Biochemistry and Technology Essay

1. For the lesson, I chose the topic of animal cloning for agricultural needs. 2. The sources I used are http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/NewsEvents/FDAVeterinarianNewsletter/ucm106070.htm http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/how/areas-of-research/animal-cloning/ 3. Cloning has always been something of science fiction, the ability to make an exact copy of an organism. Recently though, this sci-fi idea is more of reality than ever. Many have heard of Dolly the sheep, a perfect clone, but cloning has been done many times throughout the world. Rabbits, horses, mice and others have been clone before. Since cloning only takes one parent cell, the offspring is an exact genetic replica of the first. Now, cloning for agriculture was one of the first marketing thoughts on the subject. If a farmer were to have just one healthy pig that could end up being 100 healthy pigs, it would get rid of the problem of genetic problems with farm animals. A 100% success rate would help the farming business greatly. 4. There are many positive aspects of cloning technology for the use of livestock trading. This technology would benefit all in the livestock circle. Imagine that every steak you came from the â€Å"near-perfect† cow. Each cow would have the genes of one â€Å"perfect† cow. This would give the consumer and producer less work of having to find the best of what they want. 5. Many fear that cloning could be used for the wrong purposes, the main being human testing. People fear that the testing of animals is just the first step to people. Another problem that people fear is that animals will start to less seem like animals and just soulless things. 6. So Dolly was not the first clone, and she looked like any other sheep, so why did she cause so much excitement and concern, since she was the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell, rather than an embryo. This was a major scientific achievement, but also raised ethical concerns.

A Report On Leadership Principles Education Essay

Leadership in organizational groups or work squads has become one of the most popular and quickly turning countries of leading theory and research. Research on the effectivity of organizational squads has suggested that the usage of squads has led to greater productiveness, more effectual usage of resources, better determinations and job resolution, better-quality merchandises and services, and greater invention and creativeness ( Parker, 1990 ) . Surveies besides suggest that it is indispensable to understand the function of leading within squads to guarantee squad success and to avoid squad failure. To guarantee squad success, squad leaders need to develop an effectual squad leading scheme. Therefore, the study will explicate, discuss and critically measure the statement made by Burke and Cooper ( 2006 ) , that ‘without sing the cardinal eventualities of administration context, team support systems, and squad type, squad leaders will non hold the information they need to develop an effectual squad leading scheme ‘ . The study support Burke and Cooper ‘s ( 2006 ) position by concentrating on assisting squad leaders to better their effectivity by placing specific squad leading schemes that are contingent upon administration context factors, support systems, and type of squad being led. The three maps most critical to team public presentation include attempt, scheme and KSAs ( Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities ) ( Hackman and Wageman, 2005 ) . They suggested that squad leaders must concentrate on behavioral attacks that will hold the greatest impact on each of these three maps and so based on organizational context, squad support, and squad type, squad leaders decide on which map to concentrate. If this procedure is executed successfully, it will assist team leader to develop an effectual squad leading scheme. However, the strategic eventuality theoretical account of squad leading developed in this study focuses on leader behavior guided by squad map and undertaking public presentation and therefore fails to recognize the person, squad personality or interpersonal issues. â€Å"Indeed, we would reason that effectual leading processes represent possibly the most critical factor in the success of organizational teams† ( Zaccaro, Rittman, & A ; Marks, 2001, p. 452 ) . Conversely, uneffective leading frequently is seen as the primary ground squads fail ( Stewart & A ; Manz, 1995, p. 748 ) . Therefore, effectual leading processes such as, a squad leader ‘s mental theoretical accounts and leading attack to reap the lessons of experience to spread out and intensify his or her cognition base and accomplishment set are besides of import to develop effectual leading scheme ( Salas, Kosarzycki, Tannenbaum & A ; Carnegie, 2004 ) .Effective Team Leadership StrategyKatzenbach and Smith ( 19 93 ) , have argued for separating work groups and work squads, and have come to a definition that work squads is â€Å"a little figure of people with complementary accomplishments who are committed to a common intent, public presentation ends, and attack for which they hold themselves reciprocally accountable† . To back up Burke and Cooper ‘s statement, we have focussed on a functional attack to leading, stated by Hackman and Wageman ( 2005 ) : â€Å"if a leader manages, by whatever agencies, to guarantee that all maps critical to group public presentation are taken attention of, the leader has done his or her occupation well† ( p. 273 ) .A Strategic Contingency Model of Team LeadershipThe strategic eventuality theoretical account of team leading helps in placing the appropriate squad maps on which to concentrate should be contingent on administration context, team support systems, and squad type. These cardinal eventualities will besides assist in developing an effectual squad leading scheme. Besides, the theoretical account provides a mental route map to assist the squad leader diagnose squad jobs and take appropriate strategic class of action to rectify these jobs and conveying out squad effectivity.Team EffectivenessTeam effectivity can associate to the coveted result of squ ad work. There are two critical maps of squad effectivity: Performance which entails the successful bringing of an end product ( that is merchandises, determinations, public presentation events, services, or information ) and Viability which means the hereafter oriented and includes continuity, committedness, coherence and capableness to carry through shared intent ( Halfhill and Huff, 2004 ) .Team FunctionsHarmonizing to Hackman and Morris ( 1975 ) , the maps that are most critical to team effectiveness autumn into three classs: Therefore, Team leaders must concentrate on behavioral attacks that will hold the greatest impact on each of these three maps. Teams who are able to set forth the appropriate sum of attempt, formulate schemes in line with cardinal undertaking demands, and whose squad members possess sufficient KSAs will probably to execute more efficaciously compared to those who are non. However, the theoretical account shows that there are organizational context factors, squad support system and squad type that may impact the relevancy and impact of attempt, scheme and KSAs. We will therefore explain and discourse the three key eventualities which help the squad leader to take appropriate strategic determinations on which squad maps to concentrate in order to accomplish squad effectivity.Administration ContextOrganisation context factors include elements such as civilization, undertaking design and engineering, liberty, public presentation feedback, wagess, preparation and physical environment ( Sandstorm et.al, 1990 ) . The theoretical account has concentrated on merely three factors: Task design which involves the grade to which squad undertakings are complex, unpredictable, and dynamic versus simple, predictable and stable. Autonomy is defined as the grade to which squad leaders ‘ control how their squads approach work. Input control refers to the control over work inputs utilised by squads to execute undertakings. Each of these three contextual elements may restrain or better the impact of the squad maps on effectivity. The benefit of squad leader concentrating on:Effort is reasonable merely if squad leaders have a important degree of control over work inputs ( for illustration, supply, stuff, resources etc, )Scheme is reasonable merely if they have some grade of liberty in how they do their work. Empowerment, following a theory Y attack and a flexible or organic organizational construction are indispensable to accomplish squad effectivity.KSAs make sense merely if the squad ‘s undertaking is complex and unpredictable.The peculiar mix of contextual factors present in an administration indicates the importance of squad leaders concentrating on one, some, or all of the critical squad maps. For illustration, see a shop stock list squad ( SIT ) working in retail merchant such as Wal-Mart, Best-Buy and so on. This squad ‘s primary duties include unloading bringing trucks, cataloguing st ock list as it is unloaded, and forming, hive awaying and puting stock list. SITs do non command what is delivered or when it is delivered ( no control over work input ) , as it is determined by stock list handiness, client demand, and bringing logistics. Therefore, SIT leaders would derive small advantage by concentrating on work inputs. On the other manus, most SITs have flexibleness ( that is autonomy ) sing the scheme they employ in carry throughing their occupation one time inventory arrives at the shops. Therefore, SITs leaders would lend more to increasing squad effectivity by concentrating on scheme. Therefore, squad leaders must take duty for naming their administration ‘s contextual matrix to assist them place the appropriate leading scheme to prosecute. Regardless of whether administration context factors facilitate or restrain specific squad maps, current squad support systems will play an of import function in squad effectivity ( Sundstorm, 1999 ) .Team Support SystemsIn order to maximize effectivity, squads need organizational support from several cardinal systems. Sundstorm et Al, ( 1999 ) , place these systems as a â€Å"structure compatible with squad work ; leaders ‘ functions that surrogate cooperation ; complementary systems for choice, measuring, information, preparation and compensation ; and installations with communicating engineering that facilitates needed interaction within and among teams† p.4. Sundstorm and co-workers ( 1999 ) besides argue that support systems must be implemented and besides run into the demands of specific types of squads . Therefore, the direction challenge is to plan, implement, and maintain organizational support systems to run into the demands of the type of squad, with flexibleness to suit each team‘s alone characteristics. There are four indispensable support systems necessary for advancing squad effectivity.1. Team StaffingTeam staffing is an of import facet to lend to effectiveness because it ensures that squad members have an appropriate blend of experience, cognition, accomplishments, and abilities. In add-on, it besides entails if the administration ‘s human resource section is executing their maps, such as enlisting and choice efficaciously. A squad leader may be recognised for his or her relationship-oriented and tactful leading manner, but if his or her squad members lack of experience, or KSAs in working with squads to execute the undertaking, the squad will decidedly non be successful. For illustration, some new merchandise development undertaking squads require squad members with expertness in selling, gross revenues, technology, fabrication and merchandise development ( Sarin and Mahajan, 2001 ) . Those responsible for staffing must concentrate on making a squad with complementary accomplishments in each of those countries, as opposed to merely staffing the squad with five intelligent, separately effectual people. During the choice procedure, administrations should execute a teamwork accomplishment appraisal and Belbin squad roles trial to do certain that squad members have the KSAs to work in squads. However, if squad staffing is non possible due to the type of squad or any other factors, other support systems such as preparation can make full KSA spreads among team members.2. TrainingTeam members who require extra cognition and accomplishments are frequently exposed to developing. In fact, squad preparation is widely used ( Bassi, Cheney, and Van Buren, 1997 ) and has benefited administrations following team-based constructions such as Motorola AND Xerox ( Gronstedt, 1996 ; Henkoff, 1993, severally ) . Stevens and Yarish ( 1999 ) analysed the usage of squad preparation during the execution of squads at a Cu refinery and they have found that the preparation support system at the refinery has created multiple preparation faculties around different aspects of teamwork which are chiefly: Therefore, developing support system is besides really of import in advancing squad effectivity. For case, cross-training provides squad members a greater apprehension of how their undertakings are inter-reliant, lifting the squad ‘s flexibleness and bettering response clip.3. Measurement and FeedbackTeam leaders must cognize how their squads are making in order to supply the support they need for betterment or continued success. Furthermore, Pritchard and Watson ( 1991 ) have demonstrated in their research that squad effectivity additions when squad members are given feedback on nonsubjective steps of their public presentation. Measurement systems non merely supply information for squad to better public presentation, they besides provide touchable illustrations of success in which squads can take pride. This motivational facet of feedback is really of import and should be considered when measuring and feedback are designed. Team leaders must besides make up one's mind what feedback is most relevant to their squad based on concern scheme and squad motive. Seasonably and proper delivered feedback can explicate the differentiation between a squad that conceals errors and a squad that observes errors as chances. Besides, squad leaders will increase their impact on overall effectivity when they link team public presentation to wagess.4. WagessAdministrations with team-based wages systems are far more prepared to back up squad effectivity. Depending on their place within the administration, squad leaders may or may non hold influence sing the wages construction used by their administration. However, squad leaders may hold discretion sing fillips and other inducements. Wagess system should dwell of inducements that the squad value ( expectancy theory ) in order to accomplish squad public presentation and effectivity. Similar to staffing, preparation, and measuring and feedback, honor support system should be tailored to specific types of squads ( Sundstorm, 1999 ) .Team TypeThe 3rd eventuality that squad leaders must see when developing their leading scheme is recognizing the kineticss of the type of squad they led. Different squads, based on their primary undertakings and duties, interact otherwise with the three administration context variables ( undertaking design, liberty, input control ) , and four squad support systems ( staffing, preparation, measurement/feedback, and wagess ) . Sundstorm et Al. ( 2000 ) have identified six types of work squads: For illustration, in a scenario where a direction squad ‘s undertaking are extremely complex and it has a strong staffing support map, concentrating on squad member KSAs would probably lend significantly to team effectivity. Therefore, the cardinal leading challenge is the uninterrupted procedure of measuring the administration context, team support systems and squad type in order to find the effectual squad maps.Discussion and Critical AnalysisLarson and LaFasto ( 1989 ) studied real-life successful squads and found that regardless of the type of squad, eight features were systematically associated with squad excellence, therefore, harmonizing to them, effectual squad leading scheme does non depend on types of squad as all squads have those eight features in common. Furthermore, the information receive from administration context, squad support system and squad type are extremely complex, that they do non supply easy replies to hard determinations for the leader. Again due to its high complexness, the waies for leading preparation are obscure, complex, and slightly overpowering. The long list of squad leading accomplishments makes it hard to cognize where to get down ( Peter G. Northouse, 2007 ) . The strategic eventuality theoretical account of squad leading focuses on leading behavior guided by squad maps and undertaking public presentation. However, the theoretical account fails to see the person and squad personality or interpersonal issues every bit good as the leading manner and accomplishments as these besides of import to develop effectual leading scheme.Individual and Team Personality or Interpersonal issuesEffective squad leading is based on leading manner and the ability of the leader to turn to the multiple interpersonal demands that exist in squad scenes ( Burke Cooper 2006 ) . Therefore, to develop effectual squad leading scheme, a squad leader must guarantee that single squad members are comfy with themselves. Merely after accomplishing that phase, a squad leader can travel to the following degree interpersonal. At the interpersonal degree, a squad leader needs to understand and work out interpersonal issues within the squad. Interpersonal issues may include for illustration, squad personality and self-importance ; squad members are alone persons with different demands and personalities. Therefore, the squad leader needs to develop effectual schemes, for illustration, strong leading manner, and good communicating system to work out those interpersonal jobs so as to accomplish squad effectivity. John Adair ( 2003 ) in his three interconnected circle theoretical account indicates that the wide maps of strategic leading are Task, Team and Individual. Nevertheless, the strategic eventuality theoretical account of squad leading has concentrated on three squad maps related to task public presentation, non including the person. Besides, it is merely after accomplishing the two phases ( single and interpersonal degree ) that squad leaders will achieve synergism and develop effectual squad leading scheme.Leadership Approach: Style, Preferences and SkillsTeam leading can be accomplished in many different ways, depending in portion on the leader ‘s ain manner, penchants, and accomplishments. The fact that single differences among squad leaders are irrelevant to their leading effectivity ( Salas, Kosarzycki, Tannenbaum & A ; Carnegie, 2004 ) is misdirecting. To the contrary, the quality of the squad leading provided depends to a great extent on: ( a ) the truth and completeness of the leader ‘s mental theoretical account of what it takes to assist a squad win ; ( B ) the leader ‘s accomplishment in put to deathing the behavior required by his or her mental theoretical account ; and ( degree Celsius ) the leader ‘s ability to garner the lessons of experience to spread out and intensify his or her cognition base and accomplishment set.Leaderships Mental ModelEffective squad public presentation begins with the leader ‘s mental theoretical account of the state of affairs that guides actions. That is, what factors most strongly impact how squads behave and what intercessions are most likely to assist them win ( Stockton, Morran & A ; Clark, 2004 ) . Leaders ‘ mental theoretical accounts about ever are of the input-process-output assortment, in that they specify the factors that causally shape the group interactions that so drive public presentation results ( Hackman, 1987, pp. 319-322 ) . An illustration would be a theoretical account that identifies homogeneousness of rank as causal of harmonious group interaction which, in bend, Fosters group productiveness.Leadership SkillsIt is non sufficient for those who lead work squads simply to hold a moderately complete and accurate leading theoretical account ; they besides need ample accomplishments in acting in c onformity with the dictates of their theoretical account ( Gist & A ; McDonald-Mann, 2000 ) . Two sorts of accomplishments are critical to effectual squad leading: diagnostic accomplishments and behavioral accomplishments.Diagnostic SkillsDiagnostic accomplishments means when the leader is in a place to craft intercessions that have a sensible opportunity of contracting the spread between the existent state of affairss to the ideal state of affairss ( McGrath, 1962, pp. 13-14 ) . Team leaders should hold the accomplishments to summarize the factors ‘what is go oning ‘ in the squad compared it to what the leader believes ‘should be go oning ‘ in the squad ( leaders mental theoretical account ) .Behavioural SkillsBehavioural accomplishments include: monitoring and control, feedback, preparation, training etc. Behavioural accomplishments are similar to Hackman and Walton ( 1986 ) , executing accomplishments, which means taking appropriate action to contract the spread between a squad ‘s present world and what could it be. The instruction of diagnostic and behavioral accomplishments is besides needfully personalized and for that ground, it is labour intensive, clip consuming, and expensive. But it is a critical ingredient in the mix that makes for effectual squad leading.Learning by ExperienceTo develop an effectual leading scheme, a squad leader should besides hold a good path record, experience and a solid attack to team leading. Leaderships learn from experience working from different squads, every bit good as learn from their failure and mistake ; the bigger the error, the greater the chances for the squad leaders to larn. Leading a squad good besides requires a considerable grade of emotional adulthood in covering with one ‘s ain and others ‘ anxiousnesss. Emotionally mature leaders are willing and able to travel toward anxiety-arousing provinces of personal businesss in the involvement of larning about them instead than traveling off to acquire anxiousnesss reduced every bit rapidly as possible. Emotional adulthood may be better viewed as a long-run developmental undertaking for a leader ‘s life than something that can be consistently taught. Such learning involves working on existent jobs in safe environments with the expressed encouragement and support of others who themselves besides are larning how to cover with emotions efficaciously.Leadership Style and PowerAppropriate leading manner and power are besides of import to develop an effectual squad scheme. Apart from the functional attack, eventuality theories, underscoring that a leader should be in a place to accommodate his/her behavior and take actions harmonizing to different state of affairs, and a transformational attack to leading, underscoring that squad leaders will animate and actuate their squad members by selling their vision and moving as a adept manager are besides really of import to develop team leading scheme. In add-on, doing usage of useful power is besides of import to develop an effectual squad leading scheme.Decision and RecommendationThe study has provided a balance position on the statement that Burke and Cooper ( 2006 ) made. It has supported the statement by explicating a strategic eventuality theoretical account of team leading. The theoretical account of leading allows squad leaders to recognize the kineticss of the type of squad they lead, organizational context factors, and support systems impacting their squad. Then, sing these eventualities, they must place the most appropriate strategic class of actions by concentrating on one, two or all the critical squad maps. However, the theoretical account focuses on leader behavior guided by squad map and undertaking public presentation. It fails to recognize the importance of the person, considered by John Adair to be one of the interconnected factors of strategic leading map. In add-on, squad leader demand to understand the interpersonal issues of squad members foremost in order to accomplish squad effectivity. The theoretical account besides focuses on functional attack and has ignored how eventuality theories and transformational theories are besides of import in developing effectual squad leading scheme. The theoretical account in add-on besides fails to recognize that the squad leaders ‘ behavior can besides be guided by their leading manner, using a mix ingredient of diagnostic and behavioral accomplishments, their coaching ability, good path record and experience. The theoretical accounts have besides emphasize on undertaking public presentation and did non demo the leaders ‘ mental theoretical account and emotional adulthood guide their behavior and actions every bit good as contribute to the viability component in accomplishing squad effectivity. Therefore, to develop an effectual squad leading scheme, the cardinal eventualities ; administration context, team support systems and squad type are of import. However, a squad leader should besides take into history the person, squad personality, leading accomplishments, manner, experience and mental theoretical accounts.Bibliography1. Adair J ( 1983 ) Effective Leadership, Pan Books 2. Burke R J and Cooper C L ( 2006 ) Inspiring leaders Routledge 3. Cohen, S. G. , Ledford, G. E. , Jr. , & A ; Spreitzer, G.M. ( 1996 ) . A prognostic theoretical account of self-managing work squad effectivity, Human Relations, 49, 643-676. 4. Davis-Sacks, M. L. ( 1990a ) . Credit analysis squad, in: J. R. Hackman ( Ed. ) , Groups That Work ( and Those That Do n't ) ( pp. 126-145 ) . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 5. Davis-Sacks, M. L. ( 1990b ) , the trailing squad. In: J. R. Hackman ( Ed. ) , Groups That Work ( and Those That Do n't ) ( pp. 157-170 ) . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 6. Decker, P. J. ( 1986 ) . Social larning theory and leading, Journal of Management Development, 5, 46-58. 7. Farris, G. F. , & A ; Lim, F. G. , Jr. ( 1969 ) . Effectss of public presentation on leading, coherence, influence, satisfaction, and subsequent public presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 490-497. 8. Feldman, D. C. ( 1984 ) The development and enforcement of group norms, Academy of Management Review, 9 ( 1 ) : 47-53 9. Gersick, C. J. G. ( 1988 ) . Time and passage in work squads: Toward a new theoretical account of group development. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 9-41. 10. Gersick, C. J. G. , & A ; Hackman, J. R. ( 1990 ) . Accustomed modus operandis in task-performing squads. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 47, 65-97. 11. Gronstedt, A ( 1996 ) Integrated communications at America ‘s Leading entire quality direction corporations, Public Relation Review, 22 ( 1 ) :25-42 12. Hackman and Morris C G ( 1975 ) Group undertakings, group interaction processes, and group public presentation effectivity: A reappraisal and proposed integrating. In L.Berkowitz ( ed. ) Advances in experimental societal psychological science, vol 8, New York: Academy Press, pp.45-99 13. Hackman and Wageman, R. ( 2005 ) A theory of squad coaching, Academy Management reappraisal, 30 ( 2 ) : 296-87 14. Hackman, J. R. , & A ; Morris, C. G. ( 1975 ) . Group undertakings, group interaction procedure, and group public presentation effectivity: Are position and proposed integrating. In: L. Berkowitz ( Ed. ) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology ( Vol. 8, pp. 45-99 ) . New York: Academic Imperativeness 15. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.inc.com/resources/leadership/articles/20070101/musselwhite.html [ accessed day of the month: 7/04/2010 ] 16. J. Richard Hackman and Ruth Wageman ( 2005 ) , when and how Team Leaders affair, Research in Organizational Behaviour, Volume 26, 37-74 by Elsevier Ltd. 17. Northouse P G ( 2006 ) Leadership ; Theory and Practice, 4th ED. Sage Publications, Inc 18. Sundstorm, E. ( 1998 ) Challenges of back uping work effectivity, in E.Sundstorm ( ed. ) Supporting work squad effectiveness San Francicso, CA: Jossey- Bass 19. Wageman, R. ( 2001 ) how leaders foster self-managing squad effectivity. Organisation Science, 12 ( 5 ) :559-77 20. Yukl, G. ( 1989 ) Managerial Leadership: A reappraisal of theory and research, diary of direction, 15 ( 2 ) :251-89 Page 2 of 17 Pamela Pandoo ( 28001685 )

Leadership Skills Essay

Introduction Leaders have difficult getting relevant feedback, especially when operating in powerful positions in an organization. Often times leaders need feedback more than others do. If leaders do not receive feedback, they will not learn from their leadership experiences. Creating opportunities to get feedback is critical especially with regard to feedback from individuals working for them (Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes, 2009). When it comes to open door policy leaders should not think they have open request for feedback. The oversight frequently made by leaders is assuming that other recognize them open to discussing things just because they are open to discussing things (Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes, 2009). Leadership skills can be look at as competencies that has learned and developed for an effective leadership. From the basis of people skills, a leader skill approach is as an extension to leadership traits, given that traits focuses on the character risks of a leader and to large extent (Curphy , Ginnett, & Hughes, 2009). Leader’s obligations are not determined on observations of what leaders do, but on what goals they anticipated to achieve. Researchers have focused on the personality, physical traits, and behaviors of the leader. Some have studied the relationships between leaders and followers. Others have studied how aspects of the situation affect the ways leaders act. Latter viewpoint suggest there is no such thing as leadership; there have been arguments that organizational successes and failures frequently get falsely attributed to the leader, nevertheless, situation seem to have a much better impact on how the organization functions than does any individual, as well as the leader (Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes, 2009). The purpose of this paper is to explain how leadership skills are necessary for an individual to be an effective leader. In addition, discuss how these leadership skills will lead to technical competence by a leader. Evaluate the skills against my own skills. Develop a plan detailing how I will acquire and or strengthen these skills as I progress in my future. Leadership Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes defined leadership as â€Å"the process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals† (2009, p. 6). Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes say a way to understand the complexities of leadership is to see some other ways leadership is define: †¢Directing and coordinating the work of group members †¢An interpersonal relation in which others comply because they want to, not because they have to. †¢The process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals. Some definitions hold opposing views in numerous ways, and have resulted in various researches explore very different aspects of leadership. Researchers who define leadership as influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals would examine how Parrado managed to convince the group to stage and support the final expedition Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes (2009, p.4-5). Concepts of Leadership Process leadership is carry out by applying leader’s knowledge and skills. However, leader traits can influence others actions. This is call trait leadership, leaders were believe to born rather than made (Jago, 1982). Three Leadership Skills To be a sufficient leader countless qualities and skills are need. Nevertheless, there are nine essential traits or abilities reveal leaders from followers and they include someone who has influential, prioritized, integrative, a creator positive change, a problem solver, able to maintain good attitude, able to work with people, a visioning person, and be self-disciplined. I will only talk about three of the nine (Gupta, 2009). First, influence is important because in order to obtain followers you have to have the influence ability. Effective leaders have to understand what type of leader they are. According to the writer, there are five levels of leadership. Level one uses their title or position to lead. This level is the slightest effective because people follow you because they have to. Level two gets people to work for them that are not required to do so (Gupta, 2009). This level is lead by interrelationships in which each person or thing depends on or is affected by the others and at this level people will follow because they want to. Level three makes results and transform take place. At this level, individuals follow you based on what you have done for the organization. Level four empowers and motivates others as well  as themselves. At this level, individuals follow leaders based on what you have done for them. Level five is where leaders have proven themselves a true leader over the years. At this level, individuals follow because of who you are and what you represent. When influencing others its good to know where you stand in leadership the higher up the ladder you go, the longer it takes to go to the next level (Gupta, 2009). Second, integrity is an important trait in order to run a business leader to be complete and unified and employees should on the same page. Integrity is who leaders are and who leaders are determines what they do. When leaders can be depend on by others, with confidence and trust they will have in their vision, and this allows them to influence their lives. Integrity secret is growing and moving. Leaders need to exhibit: honesty, fulfillment, vision, and inspiration to get them to believe and trust in the decisions they make for the business (Gupta, 2009). Third, problem solving is important in a leader because problems are on going. Leaders’ responsibility is to correct the problem as effectively as possible. Perspective is something leaders have to change however, not their problem. Leaders need to understand they cannot choose their problem but their attitude towards solving the can be change. Leaders need to recognize a problem before it gets bigger and keep an eye out for signs of any up coming ordeal and fix it. For a problem to be, fix a leader need to define the problem. After the leader recognize the problem the best possible out come should be lastly, form principles and polices to prevent the problem form requiring (Gupta, 2009). As I progress in my future, I would strengthen these skills with the Hogan and Warrenfelz domain model watch allows me to see connections between seemingly different organizational competency models and make predictions about how easy or complex it will be to change a mixture of leadership behaviors and skills. The Hogan and Warrenfelz model will also point out what behaviors I will need to exhibit in order to build my team as well as get results through others Curphy, Ginnett, & Hughes (2009, p. 273-274). In closing, leadership qualities include several of the diverse skills and the qualities. Leadership skills are necessary for any interested individuals to succeed. Leadership skills take time, energy and commitment. Leaders become the best leader they can become, all the traits and skills need to be practice and applied to ones life. Leaders are needed without there dreams of a better  world and drive to succeed. Being influential, a problem solver and integrative will bring out the leader within a person allow them to become successful, and allow them to touch others lives. Reference Gupta, A. (2009, March 2). Leadership Skills [Part2 Leadership Skills Assignment]. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.practical-management.com Hughes, R.L. & Ginnett, R.C. & Curphy, G.J. (2009). Leadership: Enhancing the lessons of experience (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Jago, A. G. (1982). Leadership: Perspectives in Theory and Research. Management Science, 28(3), 315-336. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1987). The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Globalization and Its Different Faces Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Globalization and Its Different Faces - Essay Example This essay discusses that there is a stark difference in the quality of life of people in the developed countries compared to those from the developing countries. Human rights also become negated more in developing countries in the hopes of churning out cheap goods for the consumers of the developed countries. The economies of these countries will not stay afloat without the other but the gap should be less and not increasing as it is due to globalization.In conclusion, this is truly sad considering that we enjoy cheap yet good quality goods here in the US at the expense of the rights of people in poverty-stricken countries. I am not in favor of this practice and I hope that much more will open their eyes in response to the abuses that globalization brings. And in my opinion, globalization brings great benefits if used and managed wisely, but if we let a few people benefit from it, then globalization will be a tool for inflicting greater abuses against our fellow men. Being interconn ected and interdependent on other nations is a good thing because there are more opportunities to build each other up this way. I just hope that everyone, whether from a developed or developing country would choose to see all aspects of globalization and make personal commitments to using their influence to institute change in the current system. Globalization should not be judged according to one face only. One should see the whole picture to get to know if globalization is truly beneficial or not.

Marketing Managemant 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing Managemant 6 - Essay Example Similarly, in order to be remain profitable in the future also, they need to know the future changes in the consumers' tastes as they imperative for the success of the business as it is the consumer purchases that keep the business up and running and do well for the owners of the company and for all other stakeholders including the company's customers as well. Marketers will have to base their promotional strategy on the basis of consumer's perceptions. If consumers value discounts more than other offers such as free samples than the marketers need to make sure that they get the appropriate promotion technique and hence marketers need to know a lot about the market in order to keep the business on track and up and running. Apart from consumer's perception, the psychology of consumer's must also be kept in mind. If certain ad is considered to be bad according to the culture of the country than such ad should not aired or printed. These are some of the techniques that marketers must ke ep in mind in order to make successful promotional and marketing techniques to contribute to the success of the business.

Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Proposal - Essay Example Return venture projects or business organizations like most in Saudi Arabia as well faces a variety of risk and risk related phenomena like credit risks, Economic risks, financial risks, for big venture who deal in trades abroad also face exchange rates risks (Chong, 2004:246). Just by the mere fact that risks exist and are faced by every individual unit in the society in itself posses a threat to the existence of man. This is because man is always uncertain about the likelihood of success out of an involvement before actually it occurs successfully. According to, (Adams, 1995), a risk is the likelihood of a loss incase a hazard takes place. Such fears is what propels us to look at risk in the general perspective, its nature, kinds of risks, how to handle them or even ways in which we can try to do away with such risks so that man lives in if not completely risk free because this is not possible then at least at reduced levels of risk. In this study we are headed towards studying of risks as per the risks faced by business organizations in general, also its going to involve the study of the vast impacts of such risks and how to try minimizing the risks for the benefits of the businesses operations in terms of returns and reduced costs of operating such businesses. Risk management in this case is to be looked at through identification of the risks, looking for ways of assessing the risks in order to determine their intensity and then decision making on which ones the organization can do with and which are to must avoid so that the organization is able to maximize its chances or opportunities of maximizing business (Adams, 1995) 2.0 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY Generally out of the study on risk management the researcher intends to find out on several aspects about risk and risk management. The study is geared towards finding out on:- a. What a risk is. b. What forms or type of risks that faces business organizations in general? c. What effects or impacts do these risk s have on the organizations and to what intensity do they impact on the businesses? d. How can the risks be mitigated or reduced in real practice? The study of all the above aspects of risk entails the assessment and categorization and risk components hence risk management as an area under investigation (Adams, 1995) 3.0 RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT As stated clearly under the background of the study and clarified further under the research objectives it is very safe now to state that the major problem under investigation is to find out more about the policy on risk, the policies and tools of risk management. Therefore, the driving factor is risk and its uncertainty in business management. The researcher is obliged to find out through this research the difficulties as a result of risk and how such challenges can be done away with under the broad topic of risk management (Mugenda, 2005:89). 4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This section of the proposal on risk management is to look in the various articles that address the evolution of risk through since man started thinking about the existence of risk to date. It is also going to help us to identify fertile grounds for further active research on risk and risk management. 4.1 Definition of risks According to (Abkowitz, 2008), †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Risk is the likelihood of a loss occurring through the occurrence of an hazard that can be analyzed and measured into quantities’’.....he goes ahead to explain that its because of risks that men

How were the pyramids at Giza Constructed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

How were the pyramids at Giza Constructed - Essay Example The great pyramids consist of huge stone blocks, carefully measured out and carved, and then slotted in to fit a perfect geometric shape on a truly colossal scale. Scientists today are still trying to figure out how a nation without modern lifting equipment and mechanized transportation could possibly have had the technical skill and physical power to construct these tall edifices in the sandy ground. The fact that the Egyptians possessed such a capability is undeniable, since the pyramids are still standing there as evidence. How these people managed this great feat is, however, a deep mystery. It has long been recognized that the ancient Egyptians used ramps and wooden sleds to transport huge blocks of stone from the quarries to the building site, and that there is no evidence that they knew about the wheel, the pulley or the derrick (Dunham, 1956, p. 161). It seems that they just built ramps and used many thousands of workers, and this simple explanation is widely accepted. Another, much more radical theory has been advanced by Danish scholar Erich von Dà ¤niken who argues that it would have taken human beings some 600 years to build the great pyramid of Cheops, the largest of the pyramids at Giza, shifting more two and a half million blocks of stone (Von Dà ¤niken, 1970, p.96) and using tens of thousands of workers at any one time. He theorized that there was insufficient food and shelter for such a number of workmen in the largely desert land around the area, and that therefore the ancient Egyptians must have had help from some supreme god-like beings from outer spac e. Assembling arguments gathered from other massive structures across the planet, and from legends about Egyptian gods such as Ra, who â€Å"travelled through the heavens on a bark† (Von Dà ¤niken, 1970, p. 94), the theory of ancient aliens helping to build the pyramids emerged. The two theories outlined above argue on very different principles. Von Dà ¤niken’s argument is based on vivid

The role of gaze (however topic if optional) Research Paper

The role of gaze (however topic if optional) - Research Paper Example In his work, Berger analyses the importance of seeing and how the act impacts the day to day life. He defines the act of seeing as the most important sense compared to other four senses. On the other hand, Hooks describes the societal understanding of the gazing. She uses the gazing act to define the historical racism that the colored women faced. The role of gaze is to open the other senses to appreciate and interpret the image at the sight. â€Å"The relation between what we see and what we know is never settled† (Berger 7).Through theoretical and practical learning, I have come to notice that the eye can be the window to the brain too. There are so many links between what we see and what we think; you will see a color and then interpret it the same way you will see a danger and then react to it (Berger 7). This has allowed the looks to be judged differently by many people. The interpretation of looks, therefore, can be used to define someone’s characteristics as to whether one is disciplined or not; or an act is good or bad. The role of gaze is to enable us connect the concepts and understand the beauty that surrounds us (Berger 7). One can relate to seeing what we know or what we believe such that whatever we have in mind can make us view things differently. One who believes in The Bible as a religious teaching will, therefore, see the act of stealing as a bad thing that should be practiced (Berger 8). The act of seeing one that you love makes one be in a different kind of mood that can only be expressed not by word but through actions. The same way an act of seeing can be used to communicate disapproval, anger, and other emotional disgust. This is an explanation of how sight links with personal emotions and reactions. It is true that the feeling can be experienced through touching, and this is witnessed by the blind individuals, but it is using touch has been

Analyze the associated activities in the evaluation phase of a patient Essay

Analyze the associated activities in the evaluation phase of a patient - Essay Example In any case all practitioners are required to know how to evaluate a patient. Traditionally nurse’s role in evaluating a patient has to record the observations made but not to interpret them. The main observation includespulse, temperature, rate of respiratory, blood pressure and consciousness level (Alice, 1985). The ability of nurse to record such observations accurately will determine the priority of the patient care. Assessment based on priority setting is one of the major skills that nurses that are newly fit may lack. There are elementary evaluation that can be executed on any patient while there are some that are specific to particular cases, for instancediseases that are chronic, trauma and other emergencies (Jacques, 1988). Unfortunately, the essential assessments are not always carried out. After taking patients details such as names and insurance, it is also important to understand if the patient has any historical background of an illness, such information include when the patient was last in the hospital? What disease was the patient last diagnosed? And other historical details of the patient (Allan, 2012). Such information gives a clue as to either the illness is recurrent of it involves new prescription. Patient evaluation is done through history of medical information (Alice, 1985). Physical examination is carried out so as to be able to notice any physical behavior that may likely to be caused by illness; some patients will have a pale skin and other physically observed conditions. Routine laboratory tests are necessary to try and establish the specifics of the disease (Jacques, 1988). Other diagnostic procedures can also be carried out. Physical examination must involve the suitable measurement of blood pressure, with contralateral arm confirmation. Optic fundi examination is also done. Further examination requires calculating the mass index of the body, the BMI calculation, measuring the circumference of the waist is equally

Masculinity and Femininity in Human Culture Essay

Masculinity and Femininity in Human Culture - Essay Example In essence femininity pleases man because it creates a stark contrast and paints them as the ultimate power and competence. On the other hand to paint masculinity is to paint man as "success objects". He is perceived to be the 100 percent red-blooded certifiably male and a lot of expectation are being showered upon him. Unfortunately the men never realize that like women, they come in a variety of types-and that there is never an ultimate need to outdo one another for every person's ability depends on his capacity to recognized his role to himself, to the family and to the society in general. In Miller (1988)1 Willy told Linda that "In the greatest country in the world, a young man with such-personal attractiveness gets lost". His belief dwells on the idea that success means "being well-liked". He has been led to believe by the society he lives in that men are success objects. Failure is not treated as acceptable among males. Anxiety therefore created his negative behavior and responses further admitted when Willy recalls admitting to his older brother Ben that he feels "kind of temporary about"2 himself. To analyze, man can probably never vocally complain about being a "success object" and be valued for the money that he earns. Family responsibilities have depended on him to fulfill a certain role of strength that he simply forgets that his masculinity has sunk to its lowest when the realization of his dreams became mere figments of his imagination. According to Ladd in Roscoe(30)3 "Men are responsible for the universe. Women are responsible for the family and the tribe ." Such belief evolved from the sterner and conservative society who has not recognize the understanding that man has a complex nature as Ladd further added, "These roles were distinct but complementary; both were essential to the welfare of society as a whole". Structural straining is encouraged in a fast-paced society to mobilize the genders to achieve and attain certain degree of success in his social strata. Such viewpoint heavily suggests that failure have only them to blame. Recent development in the social structure of the masculinity has been greatly affected by the influence and re-emergence of the "third sex" or the gay community. Genetics appropriately claimed that association between directly inherited traits of behavioral patterns provides the analogy for the possible meaning of homosexuality whereby the association between the two ends. It may be difficult to explain how the environment and society contributes to homosexuality or androgyny in males however Chauncey added that "The determining criterion in labeling a man as "straight" (their term) or "queer" was not the extent of his homosexual activity, but rather the gender role he assumed."4 Across the developmental stage of man, we encounter the emergence of the Elektra and oedipal complex right after the child passes the toddler stage. Parental attachment and other inter-familial relationships sought to

Marketing in the Media 2013 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marketing in the Media 2013 - Essay Example In accordance to Cant (2006), marketing is mainly associated with any marketing media event since the company can display its latest products. It is paramount to note that marketing is mainly defined as the creation of awareness that a certain product exists through any paid method form of non-personal either through various mediums that include e-mail, direct mail, print, radio or participation in a marketing media activity (Pride & Ferrell, 2013). The major purposes of such events are for promoting and presentation of services, goods or ideas by any identified sponsor who for the purposes of this study is Samsung Electronics Company. There are various examples of mediums that a company can fully utilize, and they include web pages, posters, billboards, radio, print adverts and the television, which includes the mostly viewed television commercial on the new cell phone, the Galaxy Note by Samsung. Sam sung first created and aired the first commercial when the latest Super Bowl footb all game was taking place, and it was shown on television to create effectively awareness on the numerous benefits of the Galaxy Note prior to the marketing media event in Europe. This commercial differentiated the new Galaxy Note from a very particular competitor at the same time targeting a certain specific market segment. This also happened in the marketing media event on September 4th, 2013 at IFA in Europe (Bloomberg, 2013). This unique marketing media event displayed the new Samsung Galaxy Note in a very creative and effective manner that attracted huge numbers of people who were curious on knowing the Galaxy Notes benefits. On the screen was the advert where the features of the Galaxy Note were displayed, and they included the new phone’s screen that is larger, the included stylus, the camera capabilities as well as the video conferencing that the new phone can facilitate. The phone’s camera capabilities include the video; the camera’s features for both t he back and the front and when it is at still status (Bloomberg, 2013). The marketing media event by Samsung at IFA is relevant to marketing since it was taking place at IFA, which is the largest consumer-electronics show in Europe where it attracts many people. It is also an event where various companies display innovations and products, which mainly rival their competitors, and this was an exception to the Samsungs’ activity at the event (Armstrong & Armstrong, 2009). This is an event where various high-flying company marketers usually use their latest expertise and current trends to highlight their products. It is vital to note that such an event will normally be knowledgeable to any marketer with a passion on their professional carriers (Pride & Ferrell, 2011). However, such great events will always have marketing issues that are at stake considering the high level of sensitivity that normally goes with such highly publicized events (Gillespie & Hennessey, 2011). Recent r esearch by notable marketing researchers has extensively shown that such high-level events will have marketing issues that are most likely to take place, and it is therefore, the job of the marketers’ in-charge of these marketing events to strategize on how they will handle such eventualities (Kurtz & Young, 2009). Among the marketing issues that are at stake on such events include the possibility of the event being a failure due

Roman Civilization Essay Example for Free

Roman Civilization Essay Abstract The Roman civilization was one of the greatest civilizations in world history. It spanned almost a thousand years and stretched from Europe to Africa. Although the Roman civilization is already long extinct, its legacy is still an important part of todays social institutions such as government and religion. The Roman Civilization   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Roman civilization is one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in history. It was well-known for its political, economic, cultural and technological advancements that allowed it to expand from Europe to Africa (MSN Encarta, 2007). So consequential is the Roman civilization that most of its practices are still in use today. Ancient Rome   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Roman civilization was believed to have started almost 3,000 years ago on the hills beside the Tiber River in central Italy (MSN Encarta, 2007). What began as an encampment of shepherds huts later evolved into the city of Rome (MSN Encarta, 2007). It is sometimes claimed that the land and environment of Italy proved to be condusive for the growth of Roman civilization (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Being a peninsula, Italy is separated from the rest of Europe by sea on the east, west and south and the Alps mountain range on the north (MSN Encarta, 2007). The country in general enjoys a temperate climate, with hot summers in the south (MSN Encarta, 2007). Italys western coast and offshore islands have several volcanoes such as Mount Etna and Mount Vesuvius, resulting in fertile land in some parts of Latium, Campania and Sicily (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Italys timber-rich mountains had vast meadows where sheep and goats grazed during the summer (MSN Encarta, 2007). The Tiber River was abundant in salt and Etruria had large iron deposits (MSN Encarta, 2007). North-south land routes boosted the Roman economy by improving commerce, agriculture, pasturage and metalwork (MSN Encarta, 2007). Romulus and Remus – The Founders of Rome   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to Roman myth, twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 BC (MSN Encarta, 2007). They were the grandsons of King Numitor, the ruler of the ancient city of Alba Longa in Latium (MSN Encarta, 2007). But Numitors brother seized the throne and also tried to kill the twins by having them thrown into the Tiber (MSN Encarta, 2007). The twins miraculously survived – they were washed ashore and were nursed by a she-wolf (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Upon reaching adulthood, Romulus and Remus brought Numitor back to his throne and formed a new city located on top of Palatine Hill (MSN Encarta, 2007). Romulus had this new city surrounded with a wall, which Remus scornfully jumped over in an attempt to assert his leadership (MSN Encarta, 2007). Romulus killed him as a result, later becoming the citys first king and naming it after him (MSN Encarta, 2007). Life in Ancient Rome   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ancient Roman society was religious and family-oriented (MSN Encarta, 2007). Family and religion not only influenced personal and social relations, but also public and political activities (MSN Encarta, 2007). These two social institutions were said to be the â€Å"twin pillars of Roman society for the five centuries of the Roman Republic† (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Ancient Roman Family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Family relationships in ancient Rome reflected the patriarchal nature of the Roman state (MSN Encarta, 2007). The father (paterfamilias) wielded absolute and lifelong power (patria potestas) over his wife, children and slaves (MSN Encarta, 2007). He was also the â€Å"the priest of the cult of his ancestors and of the hearth gods of the family† (the ancient Romans practiced ancestral worship) (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Roman marriage existed primarily to continue bloodlines (MSN Encarta, 2007). The fathers family had sole custody of all legitimate children (MSN Encarta, 2007). Should a divorce occur, the mother was required to leave the children with her husband (MSN Encarta, 2007). In addition, Roman law allowed a father to abandon an infant at birth – unwanted children during this period were either deformed boys or daughters of families who cannot afford a dowry (MSN Encarta, 2007). It was also considered legal under Roman law for a father to kill an adult son as â€Å"punishment† for â€Å"treasonous† behavior (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite the all-encompassing authority of the father, the ancient Roman family remained tightly-knit (MSN Encarta, 2007). It was the parents themselves who educated their children (MSN Encarta, 2007). To prepare their sons for citizenship, fathers would bring them along to forums, where they can observe public meetings (MSN Encarta, 2007). During funerals, ancient Roman sons were also obliged to deliver speeches that praised the deceased and their forefathers in order to sustain family pride and myths (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ancient Roman women usually married between 14 and 17 years old, with their husbands often at their mid-20s (MSN Encarta, 2007). Although children during this era were not forced into wedlock, only few were able to refuse arranged marriages (MSN Encarta, 2007). A divorce can only take place if it was the husband who wanted it (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, women still enjoyed relative freedom in ancient Rome (MSN Encarta, 2007). They could attend public and private banquets, where they freely interacted with men (MSN Encarta, 2007). When a father died without a will, his estate was divided equally between his sons and daughters (MSN Encarta, 2007). But daughters were commonly included in the bequests of their fathers (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Religion.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ancient Rome was a predominantly agricultural civilization (MSN Encarta, 2007). Hence, Romans believed that deities governed every aspect of the natural world (MSN Encarta, 2007). They even tried to â€Å"construe† the â€Å"will† of the gods by analyzing animal activities and body parts (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Romans, however, adopted from the Etruscans a religion that was based from the Greek pantheon or family of gods (MSN Encarta, 2007). As a result, most Greek gods have Roman counterparts (MSN Encarta, 2007). Zeus (Greek god of the skies) was Jupiter for the Romans (MSN Encarta, 2007). Hera (Zeus wife), Aphrodite (Greek goddess of love) and Ares (Greek god of war) became Juno, Venus and Mars, respectively (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Romans also believed that devotion through prayers, festivals and sacrifices were necessary for the community to have a harmonious relationship with the gods (MSN Encarta, 2007). Kings and civil magistrates first officiated the aforementioned activities, but priests and priestesses later facilitated the worship of particular gods and goddesses (MSN Encarta, 2007). An example of the latter would be the vestal virgins who served hearth goddess Vesta (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some of the months in the Roman calendar, as well as the days of the week, were also named after the gods (MSN Encarta, 2007). January was named after Janus, the god of beginnings (MSN Encarta, 2007). March was taken from Mars (MSN Encarta, 2007). September was derived from the Latin term septem (â€Å"seven†) – March originally was the first month of the Roman calender (MSN Encarta, 2007). October, November and December were based on the Latin words for eight, ninth and tenth, respectively (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, the English names of the days of the week was patterned after Germanic gods and goddesses (MSN Encarta, 2007). Friday, for instance, was a day that was dedicated to Venus (MSN Encarta, 2007). It was taken from Freia, the German goddess of love (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Politics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The leaders of Ancient Rome were kings who â€Å"had wide military and judicial powers and represented the people to their gods† (MSN Encarta, 2007). The kings who succeeded Romulus were appointed and advised by the Senate, a governmental institution whose members were from noble clans (MSN Encarta, 2007). These tasks of the Senate enabled the Roman elites to dominate Romes religious, political and economic life (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Meanwhile, the Assembly of the People was a Roman political body that was composed of all male Roman citizens (MSN Encarta, 2007). Divided into 30 curiae or clans, members of the assembly initially met to â€Å"witness the announcement of a new king or a declaration of war† (MSN Encarta, 2007). Later, each of the clans gathered to cast their votes regarding the approval of a certain will or adoption (MSN Encarta, 2007). The Roman Republic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the Roman Republic (510 BC-27 BC), Rome â€Å"grew from a small city of 10,000 into a great cosmopolitan metropolis of 1 million whose empire of 15 million subjects encompassed the entire Mediterranean basin† (MSN Encarta, 2007). Therefore, the Roman Republic was sometimes known as the period of expansion of Roman civilization (Hooker, 1996). However, they encountered social and economic problems that resulted from imposing conventional laws and institutions on subjects whose cultures were very much different from theirs (MSN Encarta, 2007). Governance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Roman monarchy was abolished after Junius Brutus toppled the Tarquin dynasty in 509 BC (Hooker, 1996). The Romans then assumed a republican form of government but retained their constitution, a series of unwritten laws and traditions that were still based from the monarchy (Hooker, 1996). As a result, the republics new leaders, the consuls, were no different from the kings (Hooker, 1996). Although the consuls were elected and held one-year terms, they were also the heads of the Roman military and judiciary, as well as the nations chief priests (Hooker, 1996).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, the consuls had severely limited powers (Hooker, 1996). After finishing their one-year term, they had to be reelected for another term if they wish to become a consul again (Hooker, 1996). In addition, the republic was supposed to be ruled by two consuls (Hooker, 1996). No consul can act or decide without the other consuls approval (Hooker, 1996). Lastly, consuls were mandated to serve on the Senate as soon as their term expires (Hooker, 1996). The Law of the Twelve Tables   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It would be fair to say that the Roman Republic promoted the rights of the ordinary citizen (Hooker, 1996). In 450 BC, Romes constitution and laws were standardized and put into order through the Law of the Twelve Tables (Hooker, 1996). As a result, the Roman masses became aware of the rights that the law has granted upon them (Hooker, 1996). Intermarriage between plebians and patricians were allowed in 445 BC and the position of consul was opened to plebians in 367 BC (Hooker, 1996). By 287 BC, the vote of the plebian  Ã‚   assembly â€Å"were not only binding on the plebeians, but on the entire Roman citizenry† (Hooker, 1996). Crisis   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to widen itslef, the Roman Republic waged many wars, including the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) (Hooker, 1996). But these hostilities had serious social and economic consequences for Rome (Hooker, 1996). The Second Punic war, for instance, further widened the gap between the rich and the poor in Rome (Hooker, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prior to the Second Punic War, ordinary Roman citizens worked as farmers, craftsmen or laborers (Hooker, 1996). They were able to live well because they tilled their own land or received decent wages (Hooker, 1996). But while Hannibal destroyed the Roman countryside, the elites remained quietly within the walls of Rome (Hooker, 1996).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Their farmlands gone, the Romans living in the countryside had no choice but to migrate to the cities (Hooker, 1996). The rich Romans, meanwhile, bought the ravaged lands and developed them into large plantations (Hooker, 1996). These establishments dominated Roman agriculture by the middle of the second century (Hooker, 1996).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Furthermore, wars led to the proliferation of slaves in Rome and Roman territories (Hooker, 1996). As slaves provided labor at wages that were almost below subsistence level, the Roman economy shifted from a laborer economy to a slave economy (Hooker, 2006). Poor Romans who were not slaves suddenly found themselves unemployed or taking jobs that paid very little (Hooker, 1996). This resulted in the beginning of the Roman Republics unpopularity with the people (Hooker, 1996). The Roman Empire   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The social instability during the later part of the Roman Republic produced dictators such as the Gracchi brothers (UNRV, 2008). Increasing public frustration over the republic made the people turn to citizen assemblies for the discussion of popular agendas instead of to the Senate (UNRV, 2008). However, overeliance on citizen assemblies bred unscrupulous and opportunistic leaders such as Maruis and Sulla (UNRV, 2008). Roman politics was divided between the conservative Optimate Senators who tried to preserve the political dominance of the elite and the Populares who was supported by the lower classes (UNRV, 2008). As a result, the last 100 years of the Roman Republic was characterized with political instability and violence (UNRV, 2008). Caesar Augustus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After many years of civil war, the Senate proclaimed Gaius Octavius emperor in 27 BC, giving him the name Augustus (â€Å"exalted† or â€Å"holy one†) (MSN Encarta, 2007). Historians often said that the proclamation of Gaius Octavius as emperor marked the beginning of the Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD) (MSN Encarta, 2007). The Roman Republic was never revived since (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Regime of Augustus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Augustus rule (27 BC-14 AD) was marked with absolute power (MSN Encarta, 2007). However, it transformed Rome into â€Å"the greatest and most influential political institution in European history† (MSN Encarta, 2007). Thus, Augustus was said to have started the Pax Romana (â€Å"Roman Peace†), a period of peace and prosperity in Rome that lasted for about 200 years (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Under Augustus, the empire acquired new territories, such as ancient Britain, Arabia and Dacia (now Romania) (MSN Encarta, 2007). Rome became the center of politics, trade and culture in the Mediterranean region (MSN Encarta, 2007). Rome was seen as a place of opportunity – people from the Roman provinces who went there usually became soldiers, bureaucrats and senators (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Roman Empire also tolerated cultural differences among its subjects (MSN Encarta, 2007). The empire promoted Greek art, literature and philosophy, the Jewish religious and ethical system, the then-new religion of Christianity, the astronomy and astrology of the Babylonians and Persian and Egyptian culture (MSN Encarta, 2007). With the exceptions of leaders like Caligula and Nero, most Roman emperors were competent and just (MSN Encarta, 2007). Fall of the Roman Empire   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The murder of Emperor Commodus in 192 was the precedent for the collapse of the Roman Empire (MSN Encarta, 2007). After his demise, rivalry over the imperial throne resulted in a civil war that proved to be detrimental to the whole empire (MSN Encarta, 2007). Political institutions collapsed, the army was weakened and the economy crashed (MSN Encarta, 2007). The civil war lasted for about a century until the Roman Empire quietly ended in 476 (MSN Encarta, 2007). Reasons for the Fall   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The selection process for a Roman emperor was facilitated by the incumbent emperor, the Senate, the army and the Praetorian Guard (the emperors personal security forces) (Harker, n.d.). But the Praetorian Guard later had the sole authority in choosing the emperor (Harker, n.d.). In exchange for the Praetorian Guards support, the emperor rewarded them with political and military favors (Harker, n.d.). By 186 AD, the practice of selling the throne to the highest bidder was already a â€Å"tradition† in Roman politics (Harker, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition, the Roman Empire spent too much on its military (Harker, n.d.). Since the empire was very vast, protecting it from invaders was very expensive (Harker, n.d.). A huge portion of taxes were spent on soldiers and weapons, instead of on housing, roads and aqueducts (Harker, n.d.). When the empire did not have enough money, it raised taxes, leading to strong public discontent among ordinary Roman citizens (Harker, n.d.). Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even if the Roman civilization no longer exists, its legacy is still an important part of modern society. Roman laws and Latin remain to be integral in the legal profession, governance and religion (MSN Encarta, 2007). Christianity is still one of the worlds major religions (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Latin gradually evolved into languages and dialects such as Provenà §al, French, Spanish and Catalan (MSN Encarta, 2007). The Roman civilization also served as an important influence in Renaissance art, literature and politics (MSN Encarta, 2007). Renaissance sculptors revived the Greco-Roman trend of realism (after centuries of theocentrism), while Renaissance architects used Greek and Roman designs for their creations (MSN Encarta, 2007). William Shakespeares works were based on Roman comedies (MSN Encarta, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Philosophers and political theorists in the succeeding centuries used Roman laws and Roman concepts of freedom and tyranny as a reference for their own writings and discourses (MSN Encarta, 2007). These ideas also inspired revolutionaries in America and France to liberate their respective countries (MSN Encarta, 2007). References Harker, K. Killeen Harker Heights Connections. (n.d.). Reasons for the Fall of the Roman   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Empire. Retrieved May 8, 2008, from http://killeenroos.com/1/Romefall.htm Hooker, R. World Civilizations. (1996). Rome: The Roman Republic. Retrieved May 7, 2008,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   from http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM MSN Encarta. (2007). Ancient Rome. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552589/Ancient_Rome.html MSN Encarta. (2007). Roman Empire. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741502785/Roman_Empire.html UNRV. (2008). Fall of the Roman Republic. Retrieved May 8, 2007, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.unrv.com/roman-republic/fall-of-roman-republic.php

Electronic Banking in Pakistan | Dissertation

Electronic Banking in Pakistan | Dissertation Electronic Banking in Pakistan 1. PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND 1.1. INTRTODUCTION As the world has entered the twenty first century, one thing has become all too apparent, any organization that wishes to succeed in todays cutthroat competition will have to embrace Information Technology (IT) with fervor. In this age of Information Technology new inventions and innovations are affecting all the fields of life. Almost all kinds of organizations are stepping into the field of IT, in an effort to increase their productivity and expand their customer bank. The same goes for the Banking Sector. Today all the banks of the world are adopting the tool of Electronic Banking. The need of Electronic Banking was felt in South Asia during the last 5 to 7 years. This concept emerged as an essential tool for successful bank management. Financial sector has been quick to recognize this fact, and in Pakistan, most of the banking industry has moved away from the old ledger based system to computers and automation in order to modernize their operations. Although foreign banks were pioneers of bringing this concept to South-Asia but they have yet to start latest Electronic Banking practices in Pakistan Background Electronic Banking Electronic banking is an umbrella term for the process by which a customer may perform banking transactions electronically without visiting a brick-and-mortar institution. It is a form of banking in which funds are transferred through an exchange of electronic signals between financial institutions, rather than an exchange of cash, checks or other negotiable instruments. The growth in use of the Internet world-wide and the development of procedures enabling secure transactions on-line have created the new field of on-line banking, where customers deal with their banks chiefly or entirely through Internet connections. Opening hours or location of branches, unlike the traditional banks does not restrict such services. Both existing banks and new groups are already moving into this potentially very important area. Since on-line banking services can be accessed with equal ease almost anywhere in the developed world, this raises the possibility of banking networks operating without regard to national boundaries, with consequent regulatory problems. Banking on line, commonly called PC banking, electronic banking or Internet banking, has been around in one form or another for a decade or more. Forms of on-line Banking Following can be the ways to bank on-line: 1) Internet Based access to account information through banks web site, via modem, using a standard web browser such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. 2) Bank Software: Bank provides customers with proprietary software to install in their computers. The software allows customers to connect to banks computers over a secure network. The customer essentially dials directly into the bank instead of through the Internet. 3) Personal Finance Software: Software such as Quicken or Microsoft Money allows customer to exchange financial information with the bank. The software connects to the banks computers via an Internet based set up and downloads financial information from the clients account. Many banks affiliate leading software vendors such as Intuit or Microsoft to make their systems compatible. 4) Pay-by-Phone Systems /Tele banking: Allows a customer to pay by telephone certain bills, or transfer funds between accounts, with instructions to the bank. One must have an agreement in advance with the institution to make such transfers. 5) Point-of-Sale Transfers: Allows a customer to pay for retail purchases with an EFT (or debit) card. In some instances, this card may also be an ATM card. This is similar to using a credit card, but with one important exception: the money for the purchase is transferred immediately — or very shortly — from customers bank account to the stores account. An increasing number of merchants are accepting this type of payment. On-line Banking: a Revolution The thought of today is the reality of tomorrow but the thoughts of Banking on Your OWN TERMS AT YOUR OWN DOORSTEPS, which seemed to be reality of tomorrow, is no a more mystique. What we can do NOW (?) It allows customers to do most of their financial transactions at home on a personal computer. Pay your bills on-line while youre watching TV. Check your account balances from your digital cell phone as you stand in line to board a flight. Consolidate all your financial accounts on-line in one convenient, secure location. Have access to friendly, helpful customer service representatives Why on-line banking? Unfortunately, banking is a necessary evil that can take a large chunk out of already busy schedules. Visiting a branch or ATM, paying bills by paper check (and mailing them) and balancing a chequebook all can be time consuming. Banking on-line, by its nature, can automate many of these processes, saving time and, in many cases, money. One can access his account and do banking when (and where) it is convenient for him. Following can be online banking services offered by various banks Check account balances Make transfers between online accounts Check the status of loans Track investments Apply for loans online Pay bills electronically Download account information to a personal finance software program On-Line Banking Advantages Internet banks are open 7 days a week 24 hours a day In general, you will find lower fees and higher interest rates for deposits due to the reduced cost of operating on-line and not needing numerous physical bank branches. Create a more in depth portfolio of each individual customer of what their needs and expectations are. Be able to provide services to each customer that are customized to their individual preferences You will have easy access to account information and transactions, because any Internet-enabled computer can become your bank terminal. You will generally have up-to-the-minute current bank account information due to the automation of most systems. In many cases, on-line banks offer free bill pay, which can be a big saving in both money and time. You can transfer funds electronically between accounts. Common E-Banking Services Retail Services Wholesale Services Account management Account management Bill payment and presentment Cash management New account opening Small business loan applications, approvals, or advances Consumer wire transfers Investment/Brokerage services Commercial wire transfers Loan application and approval Business-to-business payments Account aggregation Employee benefits/pension administration Current Scenario of Electronic Banking in Pakistan Pakistan is widely considered to be in the Third Wave of developing economies that include countries in Asia, Latin America, the Pacific Islands and the Middle East. These countries started to adopt the Internet from around 1993. Almost all have a state monopoly over the telecommunications sector with low tele-densities per population and high telecom costs, which restrict Internet access to elitist groups in the population. Less than 2 per cent of the population is connected to the Internet. These countries have weak political and democratic institutions where the governments welcome new commercial opportunities. The First Wave countries include USA, Canada, and some Nordic states where the Internet took hold in the 1980s, and became an established feature of social, political and economic life. On average, over 35 per cent of the population are connected to the net, with households always connected online to the net 24 hours in the day in many cases. Both the First and Second wave of counties have much in common; with both involved in the early development of the Internet. The gap between the two is rapidly diminishing. Both have highly developed telecommunication infrastructures, with extensive networks of fiber optic, satellite and ISDN lines that can respond to exponential growth in demand for bandwidth. Knowledge of Internet applications is a mainstream activity, and a prerequisite for commercial credibility. They have highly developed information, dissemination technology and content industries, with a strong export focus. Both have strong government policies that aim to influence the shape of the future information society, with massive investments in research and development, education, training, IT and Internet developed research. E-Banking in Pakistan: Due to advancements in sciences and technology, many foreign banks started offering Electronic Banking services in Pakistan. Electronic Banking offers tremendous opportunities and saves cost and time for both banks and customers. E-Banking in Pakistan is still a relatively new phenomena and is expected to grow now faster with future penetration of computers and internet services in the country, availability of a robust legal framework, removal of concerns about security of electronic transactions and enhanced reliability of communication Unfortunately Electronic Banking in Pakistan is still in the introduction phase and the government with the private sector has to streamline many policies for its further development and success. Although foreign banks took the initiative but now there are private Pakistani banks that are making advancements in E-Banking. The rate of technology transfer from developed to developing countries has been very slow in this regard. In Pakistan the available technology services are NIFT, ATM, ETPoS, Tele Banking and Central Depository Systems. NIFT was established in 1997,it is a technology that uses images with high-speed sorters to automate check clearing. ATMs are automated teller machines that provide facilities for instant deposits and cash withdrawals, and are presently available at around 200 locations in major cities only. ETPoS is a method of payment where goods and services are paid for at the point of sale, and is available in major cities in a few super markets only. Telebanking is telephone banking facility available only in a few banks, and again, in major cities only. The central depository system is a well- established system used in stock exchanges for recording and the transfer of securities. Secure electronic transactions (SET): This protocol was developed jointly by Visa and Master Card and is now baked by American Express. Major players in e-commerce, networking, and computing like Microsoft, Netscape, IBM, etc, are behind specifications of this protocol, and are thus becoming an industry standard for secured payments on the internet. SET provides confidentiality through encryption; message integrity using digital signatures, and authentication of consumer and merchant identity Use of this, method is ideal due to the level of security that this method offers. However, establishment of this protocol will require Internet merchant accounts. Smart cards: It is a digital currency payment, which looks similar to credit cards, but contains a microprocessor and a storage unit. The cards hold prepaid account information. Merchants who accept these records are credited for the transaction amount by card issuers. The use of this technology is safe but expensive to acquire. Pakistan will require building a consensus among major stakeholders to invest in making this technology available in Pakistan. Value-added networks: Pakistan could establish value added networks (VAN) for financial transactions to expedite fast and efficient flow of remittances to all major cities and to enable exchange of electronic documents. These networks will provide shared connectivity, security assurance of data, and reliability of service. These networks will provide bank -to -bank transfer of funds for financial transactions, and will also enable the exchange of electronic documents to facilitate e-trade. These value added networks will also facilitate B2B transactions using EDI systems. The EDI Vans will execute authorized transactions between valid trading partners. These networks will reduce technical complexities and the cost of implementing dedicated connections with a multitude of trading partners. Another advantage out of these networks will be the provision of storing viable information on the networks, so that authorized partners can directly access them without contacting the other parties. This will help in in creasing efficiencies of business transactions in terms of time and costs. 1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM E-banking has entered the Pakistan economy in a big way but, considering the state of development of banking industry in the country and the client-base, there are doubts about the utility and cost-effectiveness of this mode of banking. The research study will examine these points and give recommendations on the subject: An evaluation, theoretically and practically, of the progress of banks which adopted electronic operations, and the prospective role for banks in the future. Discussing problems facing banks in the scope of electronic banking operations. Specifying the concept of electronic banks. 1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Following objectives have been set forth in conduct of the research: To familiarise public with the subject of ELECTRONIC BANKING, enhance their keenness to remain abreast to the techniques, and modern trends of efficient banking. To induce healthy practices in banking business and profession and to advise suitable measures for their achievement. To encourage and provide Electronic Banking information and to offer education through research report contents to students and consequently to national financial institutions. To print and publish the report for provision to all who are interested in the issue of Electronic Banking. To study Electronic Banking practices of different banks in Pakistan. 1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY E-banking is playing an important role not only in the development of electronic services in the first world countries but also in the developing countries too. Due to advancements in sciences and technology, many foreign banks started offering Electronic Banking services in Pakistan. Electronic Banking offers tremendous opportunities and saves cost and time for both banks and customers. This study will evaluate the electronic performance of banks. This report emphasizes the fact that on-line accessibility, awareness, attitude towards change, computer and Internet access costs, trust in ones bank, security concerns, ease of use and convenience are the major factors affecting the adoption of Internet bank services in Pakistan. 1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Scope of the study: The research thesis covers the leading banks in Pakistan that have entered the e-banking era and examine its economics. The major limitation of the study is that the concerned banks are reluctant to disclose information with regard to costs incurred on E- banking. Limitations of the study: As the E-banking in Pakistan is at the introduction stage and its efficacy is yet to be tested, adequate literature on the subject is not available. Moreover, the topic under study requires comprehensive research, which is possible if more time is allotted for the project. Banks personnel are reluctant to give information about banks electronic process and problems faced by banks. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Literature survey is conducted in order to get more insight into the study. Literature survey consists of past studies related to this topic. Which will help and ensure that no important information related to the study is omitted. It includes mostly domestic studies conducted by our own scholars. 2.1. FOREIGN SCENARIO Yoshio, (1999), states that Malaysian banking sector started in the 1970s. However, the first visible form of electronic innovation in the Malaysian banking industry was the introduction of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) in 1981. The ATMs to a large extent released banks from the constraints of time and geographical location. Then in the early 1990s, Tele-banking was introduced in Malaysia, which provided yet another delivery channel for branch financial services via telecommunications devices connected to an automated system of the bank by utilizing Automated Voice Response (AVR) Technology. Utsuml, on June 1, (2000), said that the Malaysian Central Bank gave the green light for locally owned commercial banks to offer Internet banking services. On June 15, 2000, Maybank, the largest domestic bank in terms of assets as well as network distribution, http://www.arraydev.com/commerce/jibc/www.maybank2U.com became the first bank to offer Internet banking services in Malaysia. This service is currently provided to individual customers of the bank and the site boasts of the latest 128-bit encryption technology to allay fears of security among consumers. The services provided in this portal include banking enquiry functions, bill payment, credit card payment, funds transfer, and accounts summary as well as transaction history. Customer support service is provided via e-mails as well as via telephone lines and is available daily from 6 am to 12 mid-night. JoseÉ, (2000), said that the Hong Leong Bank commenced its Internet banking operations known as e-Banking, which can be accessed via their web site at http://www.arraydev.com/commerce/jibc/www.hlbb.hongleong.com.my in December 2000. In addition to providing services that were previously included in their Phone banking service, they also offer options of assessing account transaction history in their e-banking. They too provide support services via e-mails and telephones from 7 am to 11.00 pm, seven days a week. Al-Jasser, (1999), states that both the competitive forces as well as the expected benefits are causing concentration and expansion of E-banking services in the country (Saudi Arabia). However, in the long run it would be the actual benefits which the banks would realize in terms of higher profits through reduction in intermediary costs and expanded consumer base due to improved services on a cost effective manner that would determine the role of E-banking in the countrys banking sector. E banking is expected to play an important role in integrating the financial markets of Saudi Arabia globally and banks would ultimately capitalize on these developments. Figures, (2000), states that E-banking Automate critical banking activities and interact electronically with bank with comprehensive tools that help reduce administrative costs, increase productivity, and improve cash management—in a security-enhanced environment. 2.2. LOCAL SCENARIO Mashhood, (2000), states that the role of information technology in financial services is to support operational efficiencies, facilitate customer services, mange risk and support in decision-making. In the IT policy on financial services, the government of Pakistan has asked the State Bank of Pakistan to allow opening of internet merchant accounts to enable inter-bank electronic fund transfer, to re-engineer processes of foreign trade sections, to accept e-orders of value less than $500, to open an e-commerce wing in financial institutions, and to facilitate clearing and e-reporting in al banks. The e-commerce action plans for the financial sector have been established as per directions from the government. The plan is to connect branches of 25 local and foreign banks in 12 major cities. In phase I, branches in one city will be linked with their head office. In phase II, all these banks and other financial institutions will be connected together. In phase III, private and public sec tor stakeholders will be linked and ultimately e-commerce network will include financial, trade and customs networks along with their international links. Ziauddin, (1998), states that In Pakistan, huge investments, recurring costs, and absence of economies of scale are some of the major bottlenecks to invest in online banking. One other problem is that only a few foreign banks are linked with their branches, otherwise all major financial institutions work in isolation. AL-Bader, (1999), said that in the absence of a centralized database linked to branches, banks do not only need the communication software to facilitate communication, but also require modems, routers, controllers, etc. irrespective of the volume of transactions, be it small or massive, huge investments are required to facilitate online banking. Not only the capital investments debut also the recurring costs, such as lease payments to PTCL, ongoing maintenance costs, etc, are discouraging national banks to invest. Giasuddin, (2003) said that there is a need to establish inter-branch and inter-bank networks so that all financial institutions may be linked together to facilitate electronic payment systems, which are among basic prerequisites for establishment of the financial infrastructure for e-commerce development. The next step that is still not clear in Pakistan is the type of electronic payment systems and digital currencies to be used in Pakistan. There are a lot of different methods of payment that are available globally. Pakistan has to carefully decide the most feasible payment systems that can easily fulfill financial requirements, as well as, provide enough confidence to the buyers and merchants for safety and security of such payments. Kazmi, (2000), said that there is an urgent need in Pakistan for establishing value added networks for financial transactions. Without these networks, it will be difficult for business and financial institutions to provide EC solutions with high quality and low costs. Zaidi, (2003), states that there is a need to establish inter-branch and inter-bank networks so that all financial institutions may be linked together to facilitate electronic payment systems, which are among basic prerequisites for establishment of the financial infrastructure for e-commerce development. The next step that is still not clear in Pakistan is the type of electronic payment systems and digital currencies to be used in Pakistan. Shabbir, (2003), said that both the competitive forces as well as the expected benefits are causing concentration and expansion of E-banking services in the country. However, in the long run it would be the actual benefits which the banks would realize in terms of higher profits through reduction in intermediary costs and expanded consumer base due to improved services on a cost effective manner that would determine the role of E-banking in the countrys banking sector. E-banking is expected to play and important role in integrating the financial markets of Pakistan globally and banks would ultimately capitalize on these developments. Naveed, (2003) states that Credit cards are primarily used as convenient payment products and at times a credit facility for short term needs. The State Bank of Pakistan is playing a pro-active role in promoting adoption of technology-based solutions in the banking sector and supporting services based on E-Banking. E-Banking has already taken off in this country and the recent launch by Habib Bank- one of the largest banks in the country has provided a major breakthrough. so the question is not when the facilities will be provided but how rapidly these facilities will expand. Efforts in this direction are focused upon following areas: Creation of a robust legal infrastructure catering to the needs of E-Banking and other payments systems involving electronic settlement of funds. Key step in this direction was the promulgation of Electronic Transactions Ordinance 2002, which provides legal recognition to digital signatures and documentation reducing the risks associated with the use of electronic medium of business. State bank is currently engaged in an exercise to further augment the legal framework for electronic settlement of transactions in the banking sector. Establishing of Payment Systems Development Committee in which commercial banks are members, to guide the development of payment systems in Pakistan. Creation of a dedicated Payment Systems Department in the State Bank dealing with all issues pertaining to payment systems including E-Banking. Creation of a Real Time Gross Settlement System (RTGS) providing an E-Banking solution to banks maintaining their accounts with standard operating procedure (SOP) whereby they will be able to operate these accounts from their own premises via an electronic connection with the State Banks own servers. Commercial banks have been allowed to open and operate Internet Merchant Accounts. Banks are being encouraged to expand the ATMs network through more participation and a wider network of machines all across the country. all banks have been asked to join a SWITCH and interconnection between the 2 existing SWITCHES is being encouraged for further development of the electronic infrastructure . State Bank has already acquired SWIFT connection and has also made it mandatory for banks to acquire SWIFT connectivity for settlement of all cross border financial transactions. Expansion of automated cheques clearing services to all major cities in the country is actively being pursued. The usage of plastic money such as Credit/Debit cards is making good progress Ishrat, (2003), states that introduction of E-banking will improve banking services mainly in terms of the convenience of the customers including, place, time and price, the banks will be able to provide improved services and, consequently, the quality and skills of banking staff will also improve. Although many banking services will be available 24 hours, the need for over the counter services will remain and banks would continue to provide normal services during office banking hours in Pakistan also like in the developed countries where E -banking is prevalent, it has been observed that customers feel much confident in using e-banking services when they can associate it with brick and mortar branches. Purely online banking without physical branch network has not made much headway even in developed countries. In Pakistan, with low rates of literacy the majority of customers will continue to use the 9-5 bank branches. Rizvi, (1999), states that the state bank of Pakistan has constituted various committees such as the Payment Systems Development Committee and the ECH task force for the development of technology based banking services in the country. Besides other matters, these committees also oversee the developments in the areas of E-banking. State Bank of Pakistan coordinates closely with other agencies such as the Ministry of Science Technology (MoST), in initiatives relating to E-banking. Shirazi, (2001), said that the future of e banking is very bright in Pakistan. Many banks in Pakistan have started providing e-banking facilities to their consumers. Over 300 ATMs are in operation in Pakistan the use of ATMs is rapidly increasing. More and more facilities are being provided by the banks electronically including e-statements, funds transfer, bill payment for utilities as well as other purchases. By 2002, almost 40% of the bank branches have been automated and it is expected that this proportion will reach 50% by 2004. The rate of increase is phenomenal i.e. about 318%. Similarly, the number of online branches has doubled during the last 2 years to 570 and by 2004 this number will jump to 1356, representing an increase of 376%. This expansion along with the growing penetration of internet will bring E-banking to more and more of their customers both in terms of numbers as well as geographical locations. Mahmood, (2003), states in order to meet E-banking challenges that State Bank of Pakistan established the ECH Task Force under the leadership of Mr. Naveed A Khan (Country Representative ABN AMRO Bank) to facilitate the development and implementation of E-Banking sector to promote E-Commerce. This Task Force was constituted to facilitate in planning introduction of enabling technologies in the financial sector of the economy having a direct bearing on E-commerce. The ECH Task Force is constituted of various dedicated professionals from the major financial institutions of the country who enrich the Task Force with their experience and expertise with a firm commitment to develop and promote E-Commerce in Pakistan. Ahmed,(2001), states that Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce) is just another business tool, one that enhances business efficiency and effectiveness and allows cost reduction. It is a vehicle to carry out business-to-business (B2B) or business-to-consumer (B2C) transactions. For financial institutions and entrepreneurs, E-Commerce not just makes old processes work better; it also provides a means to break with tradition and create new ways of doing business. E-Commerce has a lot of potential in Pakistan where ideas are rich, resources and labor are cheap, workmanship is excellent, entrepreneurial skill in abundance, and there is a large presence of indigenous and globally appreciated artifacts other tradable goods. However, on a more realistic side, we have a lot of ground to cover before we can reap the benefits of E-Commerce and turn our economy around. These are technical as well as administrative challenges that have to be met and above all we need the basic infrastructure, which fa cilitates and promotes trading through electronic means. 3. RESEARCH METHDOLOGY This chapter presents the basic methodology required in research. It includes the methods of search, type of study and the sources of data. 3.1. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY The methodology of study includes the different methods that researcher has used to reach to the conclusion. But due to shortage of time the researcher has tried his best to make this report informative, useful and also beneficial for others. The researcher has also gathered a lot of information to cover all types of aspects related to automation and electronic data processing. In this report the researcher has covered first of all the introduction of electronic banking, its background, what facilities and benefits it provide and what is its scope in Pakistan? Secondly the researcher has visited few of the banks offering electronic services. They were very knowledgeable to the researcher basically in explaining their scope in Pakistan. 3.2. TYPE OF THE STUDY The study is descriptive because the intention is to explore the existing values given in problem statement. Descriptive process was believed to be more suited in this kind of investigation because it seeks direct response from respondents. This procedure has been used in many areas of investigations in many fields of academics and scientific discipline. 3.3. GOAL OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDY The goal of the descriptive study, here is to offer a peo